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Bahrain
Y
Manama
Dinar
Ø
1
• Official Name: State of Bahrain
• Languages: Arabic (official), English, French
• Population: 500,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Traditional monarchy
• Flag: A red field covers about three-fourths of the flag and adjoins the jagged edge of a vertical stripe.
• National Anthem: “Assalam al-Amiri” (“National Anthem”)
• Emir: Sheik Isa ibn-Sulman al-Khalifa (1961)
• Prime Minister: Sheik Khalifa bin Sulman al-Khalifa (1970)
• Natural Resources: oil, fish
• Exports: oil, aluminum, fish
• Imports: machinery, oil-industry equipment, motor vehicles, foodstuffs
• Location: Persian Gulf
• Area: 254 sq. mi. (659 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Jabal ad Dukhan, 443 ft. (135 m.)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
•••
Bahrain is a small island country situated in the Persian Gulf, close to the nations of Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The terrain of Bahrain is generally flat and arid. Bahrain has a large refinery built on one of its islands where it processes crude oil from its own reserves as well as crude oil from Saudi Arabia. Oil income allows Bahrain to maintain a relatively high standard of living for its citizens.
Bahrain was settled by Arabic nomads as long as 5,000 years ago. Situated strategically along shipping lanes, Bahrain became a center of trade for the Middle East early in its history. European influence in Bahrain was strong in the sixteenth century. Persia wrested control of the island from the Portuguese and held control until about the time of the American Revolution when a revolt freed Bahrain from Persian rule. Britain placed Bahrain under its protection in the nineteenth century, and allowed Bahrain relative autonomy in internal affairs. In 1971 Bahrain regained its full independence.
¶Cyprus
Y
Nicosia
Pound
Ø
1
• Official Name: Republic of Cyprus
• Languages: Greek, Turkish, English
• Population: 700,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Republic
• Flag: The flag is white with a map of Cyprus in copper-yellow (for copper) in the center above two green crossed olive branches (for peace)
• President: Dr. George Vassiliou (1988)
• Natural Resources: copper, asbestos, gypsum building stone, marble, clay, salt
• Location: Eastern Mediterranean Sea, off Turkish coast
• Area: 3,572 sq. mi. (9,251 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Mount Olympus, 6,406 ft. (1,953 m.)
•••
Cyprus is located below Asia Minor (Turkey) and near the extreme eastern reach of the Mediterranean Sea. A relatively large island, Cyprus has a low lying and fertile plain between two mountain ranges on the north and south ends of the island. Besides the agricultural richness of the island, Cyprus is rich in raw materials such as copper (which derives its name from the island) gypsum and asbestos.
Cyprus occupies a strategic location in the Mediterranean. Greeks first colonized Cyprus and used it as a base for its further conquests in Asia Minor. Cyprus was a part of the Phoenician empire as well. Greek and Turkish inhabitants have longstanding disputes and tensions between the two cultures remain high. As a jewel of the Mediterranean Sea, Cyprus changed hands many times over the centuries. Great Britain gained control of the island in the late nineteenth century as a concession from the Ottoman Turks.
The recent history of the island is one of Greek and Turkish fighting. Although Greeks make up more than 75% of the population, the Turks claim the northern third of the island and have declared themselves to be an independent state. Their claim to national sovereignty has not been recognized by the U.N. or the World Court, however, and the Greek majority still controls the island.
¶Iran
Y
Teheran
Rial
Ø
1
• Official Name: Islamic Republic of Iran
• Languages: Farsi (Persian), Kurdish, Arabic
• Population: 51,9000,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Islamic Republic
• Flag: The flag which the people fly is a horizontal tricolor. Its green stripe (top) stands for Islam, the white (center) for peace, and the red (bottom) for courage. The flag used by the government is the tricolor with the national emblem in its center.
• President: Hojatolislam Sayed Ali Khamenei (1981)
• Prime Minister: Mir Hussein Moussavi (1981)
• Natural Resources: oil, gas, iron, copper
• Exports: petroleum
• Imports: machinery, military supplies, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals
• Location: Archipelago SE of Asia along the Equator
• Area: 636,293 sq. mi. (1,648,000 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Damavand, 18,376 ft. (5,601 m.)
•••
Iran is a harsh and forbidding land. A central high plain is surrounded by some of the most inaccessible mountains in the world. The central high plains are mostly desert or semi-arid regions. There are few rivers in Iran and most of them are in the mountainous regions. Like most of the Middle East region, Iran receives very little precipitation and most of the people scratch out a meager living on barely productive farms. The discovery of vast oil reserves in the last century should help to alleviate many of Iran’s economic woes, but political and religious forces have slowed or stopped reforms that could significantly improve living conditions.
Known by the Greeks and Romans as “Persia,” Iran was known by that name until shortly before World War II. Throughout the history of Western civilization Persia has played a major role in the politics, culture, religion and commerce of Mediterranean peoples. Several powerful empires began in what is now Iran. The “Persian War” between the ancient Greeks and the Persians (led by the legendary Persian commander Xerxes) was the first of many conflicts between Mediterranean and Persian cultures. The largest extent of Persian advance ranged from parts of India in the East to Libya in the West, including all of present-day Turkey and parts of Greece.
Ancient Persians formed a culture that was similar in many respects to Mediterranean cultures of the day. Invasions into Greece, Egypt and Turkey and subsequent invasions FROM Greece, Egypt and Rome greatly influenced both cultures. Trade between Persia and Egyptian and Greek (and later, Roman) empires was well established by 600 B.C. When Alexander the Great conquered Persia around 330 B.C. European influence on Persian culture peaked. For 500 years thereafter Persia was ruled by the remnants of Alexander’s Empire. Roman conquests were stopped in the East by this strong empire, known as the “Parthian Empire.” At one point the Parthian Empire pushed the Roman legions to the walls of Constantinople itself before being repulsed. Persians regained control of their lands around 225 A.D.
Persia was finally conquered and overrun by Islamic Arabs, and little of their culture or race survives. Until the early twentieth century Iranian people lived much the same as they had for untold centuries. Before and during the Second World War Iranian oil deposits became vitally important to the rest of the world. In 1941 an invasion of Allied (British and Soviet) troops took control of Iran and replaced the reigning shah (king) with Mohammed Riza Pahlavi, who was sympathetic to the Allies. The shah ruled until 1979, when a popular uprising inspired by the fundamentalist Shi’ite Muslims led by Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini toppled his government and took control of the country.
The exiled shah soon became ill and was flown to the United States for treatment. When demands that the shah be returned to Iran for trial were not met, students seized the American embassy in Tehran, holding the 52 American personnel stationed there hostage. For over a year (444 days) the hostages were held by the militant students with the support of the Iranian government. In 1981 (after several months of presidential campaigning wherein Ronald Reagan promised to send in U.S. troops if necessary) on the inauguration day of Ronald Reagan as President, the hostages were released. There has been widespread speculation that the hostages’ captors feared for their safety with Ronald Reagan as President, but it is just as likely that they achieved their purpose of humiliating and helping defeat then President Jimmy Carter.
In the decade since the “Iranian Hostage Crisis” Iran has been implicated in several terrorist attacks against Western interests, including the bombing of commercial airliners. At this time Iran is considered to be “outside” of the international community of nations. Reforms and improvements in standards of living made during the days of Western influence have been cast aside. In a bloody war with Iraq, both countries used chemical weapons and committed atrocities that stunned the world. Iran has been accused of using thousands of children as young as 9 or 10 years of age as human “cannon fodder” to storm the opposing lines, leaving their more seasoned and adult troops to attack with greater safety. Since the end of that war and the death of Ayatollah Khomeini, Iran has been moving toward patching relations with the United States and the rest of the “civilized world.”
¶Iraq
Y
Baghdad
Dinar
Ø
1
• Official Name: Republic of Iraq
• Languages: Arabic (official) and Kurdish
• Population: 17,600,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Ruling council
• Flag: The flag has three horizontal stripes of red, white, and black (from top to bottom), with three green stars on the white stripe.
• Location: In the Middle East occupying most of historic Mesopotamia
• Area: 169,284 sq. mi. (438,446 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Haji Ibrahim, 11,811 ft. (3,600 m.)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
•••
Iraq is a large country that encompasses most of what was once known as “Mesopotamia.” One of the great river systems of the world flows down the center of the country. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers join to become the “Shatt al Arab,” which empties into the Persian Gulf. The fertile basin of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is considered by archeologists to be one of the principal origins of human civilization. Mesopotamian cultures such as Babylon, Sumeria, Assyria and others flourished in what has been called the great “Fertile Crescent” of the Tigris-Euphrates system.
Besides founding great empires, the area of Mesopotamia was conquered in turn by Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, Mongols, Arabs and, finally, Turks. By World War I, the great European powers began their assault on Mesopotamia as well. Between World War I and II the European powers created Iraq as a British Mandate. In 1932 Iraq was recognized by the now defunct League of Nations as a sovereign state. During World War II Allied forces overthrew a pro-Nazi regime and used Iraq as a base of operations against the Nazis.
Since World War II, Iraq has suffered several bloody coup attempts, and a number of different governments. In the early 1970s Iran supported internal rebellion attempts by a Moslem sect, and withdrew support only after Iraq ceded territory to Iran that had been in dispute until then. The rebellion collapsed without Iranian support. In 1980 Iraq invaded Iran to regain control of the territory, attempting to take advantage of internal turmoil in Iran. A bloody war ensued, with both sides engaging in atrocities that brought forth condemnation from the rest of the world.
¶Israel
Y
Jerusalem
Shekel
Ø
1
• Official Name: State of Israel
• Languages: Hebrew, Arabic, English
• Population: 4,400,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Parliamentary democracy
• Flag: A white field with two horizontal blue stripes and a blue “Star of David” in the center. The colors are those of the tallit (prayer shawl).
• National Anthem: “Hatikva” (“The Hope”)
• President: Chaim Herzog (1983)
• Prime Minister: Yitzhak Shamir (1986)
• Natural Resources: sulfur, rock salt, phosphates, potash, bromine
• Exports: polished diamonds, citrus and other fruits, clothing and textiles, processed foods, high technology products, computerized medical equipment, military hardware, fertilizer and chemical products
• Imports: rough diamonds, chemicals, oil, machinery, iron and steel, cereals, textiles, vehicles, ships
• Location: On eastern end of Mediterranean Sea
• Area: 7,992 sq. mi. (20,699 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Meiran, 3,963 ft. (1,208 m.)
• Lowest Point: Dead Sea, 1,299 ft. (396 m.) below sea level
•••
Israel is located at the extreme eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. The only river of importance in Israel is the Jordan River, which flows from Lebanon, through the Sea of Galilee and on to the Dead Sea. Virtually all other rivers in Israel only flow in winter. Besides the Jordan River, the Sea of Galilee and the Mediterranean coastline, the landscape of Israel is particularly harsh and unfriendly. Much of the area is desert or low mountains. A small area of coastline along the Gulf of Aqaba (an extension of the Red Sea) gives Israel access to shipping from the Pacific Ocean.
Israel has the singular distinction of being the only sovereign state in the world that is also a People. Israel is more than a nation, it is a race, a religion and a creed. Although Israel contains small minority populations of Arabs (mostly Moslem Palestinians) and Christians, the bulk of the population is made up of true Israelites (also called Hebrews). Israelites trace their history back several thousand years (indeed, they trace their ancestry back to the first man and woman on earth) and the history of their race is kept in the Torah, a sacred book that the Israelis believe to be handed down by Jehovah, or God himself. This book is partly reproduced in the Christian Bible as the “Old Testament.” The religion of Israel is known as “Judaism,” from which the word “Jew” was derived.
Israelites have a long and tortuous history. They have been conquerors and slaves, nomads and empire builders. Their “homeland” has been a part of the Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Persian, Parthian and Mongol empires, among others. One remarkable aspect of the Jews is their tenacity and their dedication to their faith and history. Throughout the millennia the Israelis have maintained a unique identity as a people and as a religion. This is no small feat.
Israel has always been located in the area known in Biblical times as Palestine. Palestine (sometimes called the “Land of Canaan”) includes most of the kingdoms mentioned in the Old Testament. The Hebrew people originally settled in Palestine 2,000 years before Christ. Some Hebrews migrated to Egypt and worked there as laborers and slaves until being led back to Palestine (the “Promised Land”) by the prophet Moses around 1200 B.C.
Saul was the first King of Israel, uniting the twelve Hebrew tribes a thousand years before Christ. King David (Saul’s successor) established Jerusalem as his capital. King Solomon (David’s son) built the first Jewish temple in the city. Israel split into two kingdoms about 920 B.C., the northern part retaining the name Israel while the southern part took the name Judah after the strongest of the twelve tribes of Israel. The two kingdoms remained separate until Israel was overrun and destroyed by the Assyrian empire around 720 B.C. Judah (which included Jerusalem) survived until 586 B.C. when it was overrun (and the temple of Solomon destroyed) by the Babylonians.
During Roman control of Israel the Christian messiah Yeshua (also called “Jesus”) was born in Galilee. From his teachings the Christian religion was formed. 600 years later the prophet Mohammed was born in Mecca (in what is now Saudi Arabia). From his teachings the Islamic faith was begun. Both the Christian and the Islamic faiths are based on Judaism.
The recent history of Israel has all of the conflict and controversy of ancient Israel. Shortly before World War II, the scattered Jews began to immigrate to Palestine (then a British Mandate). The friction this created with the Palestinians already living there was overshadowed by the growing global conflict. After World War II, Britain attempted to stop the immigration of Jews until an agreement with the Arab Palestinians could be reached. The Jewish people, hardened by the horrors of the Holocaust in Germany and similar persecution in the Soviet Union, refused to stop. In 1948 British control of Palestine ended and Jewish leaders rapidly consolidated control of Palestine and created the independent state of Israel.
Arab countries allied together to invade the new country, but the determined Israelites withstood the onslaught. Israel gained strength quickly, with the help of the United States and a massive influx of money from Jews all over the world. In 1956 Israel attacked Egypt and took control of the Sinai peninsula. In June of 1967 an Arab alliance between Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq attacked Israel. In what has since been called the “Six Day War” Israeli forces outmaneuvered, outfought, and outsmarted the Arab alliance. In six days Israel totally destroyed the invading armies and took control of all of what is now Israel, including disputed territories like the West Bank, the Golan Heights (in Syria), the Sinai peninsula, and the Gaza Strip. Fearing a massive Israeli counter-attack, the U.N. stepped in and arranged a cease-fire. Warfare between Arabs and Jews resumed soon after.
In 1977 then U.S. President Jimmy Carter achieved his greatest foreign policy victory when he arranged a settlement between Egypt and Israel in the famous “Camp David Accords.” Israel agreed to return the Sinai peninsula to Egypt (although the status of the Gaza Strip is still in dispute) and Egypt agreed to recognize Israel as a sovereign state. Since that time Israel has been involved in many “brush fires” with other Arab nations including Jordan and Syria. In addition to these tensions, Israeli troops have invaded Lebanon several times. More information is contained in the discussion of the West Bank.
¶Jordan
Y
Amman
Dinar
Ø
1
• Official Name: The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
• Languages: Arabic, English
• Population: 3,800,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Constitutional monarchy
• Flag: The flag has horizontal black, white, and green stripes. A seven-pointed star on a red triangle represents basic Islamic beliefs. The flag’s four colors stand for four periods in Arab history. The flag was adopted in 1921.
• National Anthem: “al-Salam al-Malaki” (“The Royal Salute”)
• Ruler: King Hussein I (1952)
• Prime Minister: Zeid al-Rifa’i (1985)
• Natural Resources: phosphate, potash
• Exports: foodstuffs, fertilizer, livestock
• Imports: petroleum products, textiles, capital goods, motor vehicles, foodstuffs
• Location: West Asia
• Area: 37,297 sq. mi. (96,599 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Jabal Ramm, 5,755 ft. (1,754 m.)
• Lowest Point: Dead Sea, 1,299 ft. (396 m.) below sea level
•••
Jordan, like most Middle East countries, is mostly desert. The Syrian Desert makes up most of the low-lying lands of Jordan. Other than the Jordan River along its western border, there are no major rivers or lakes in Jordan. The people of Jordan are Arabic, including the Palestinian refugees pushed out of the West Bank by Israel in 1967.
The history of Jordan is closely linked to the history of Israel. For more detail on the ancient history of the area see the discussion of Israel. Jordan became a British Mandate in 1920 after the end of the Ottoman Empire. Britain ruled the area until after World War II. Palestine and Jordan have always had close ties, and when Israel was recreated in 1949, Jordan sided with the disenfranchised Palestinians against Israel. Jordan has gone to war with Israel twice (losing both times), and has supported terrorist incursions into Israeli territory since that time. In the Six Day War of 1967 Israel wrested control of the West Bank of the Jordan river from Jordan, reducing the agricultural land of Jordan by half.
After years of openly supporting the PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) against Israel, in 1974 Jordan’s King Hussein supported the PLO’s claim to the West Bank and withdrew Jordan’s claim. When Egypt and Israel agreed to a peace treaty in 1979 (the “Camp David Accords,” arranged and mediated by U.S. President Jimmy Carter) Jordan broke off relations with Egypt. Jordan has been implicated, along with Syria, in terrorist activities against Western interests over the past few decades.
¶Kuwait
Y
Kuwait
Dinar
Ø
1
• Official Name: State of Kuwait
• Languages: Arabic, English
• Population: 2,000,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Constitutional monarchy
• Flag: Horizontal green, white, and red stripes join a black vertical stripe at the flagstaff.
• Emir: Sheik Jaber al-Ahmad al Sabah (1977)
• Prime Minister: Sheik Sa’ad Abdullah al-Salim (1978)
• Natural Resources: petroleum, fish, shrimp
• Exports: crude and refined petroleum, shrimp
• Imports: foodstuffs, automobiles, building materials, machinery, textiles
• Location: In Middle East, at the North end of the Persian Gulf
• Area: 7,780 sq. mi. (20,150 sq. km.)
•••
Kuwait is a small country nestled between Saudi Arabia and Iraq, on the northeast corner of the Persian Gulf. The country is typically arid and flat. Most of the people of Kuwait are small farmers, herders or fishermen. The major industry of Kuwait is oil drilling and oil processing. By an accident of nature Kuwait is blessed with a massively disproportionate oil supply. By some estimates fully one-tenth of the known reserves of the world are in Kuwait.
The ancient history of Kuwait is unknown, although the area was conquered by several empires. For a discussion of the ancient history of Kuwait see Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Kuwait was conquered by the Moslem hordes of the eighth century along with most of the rest of the Middle East, and the Moslem religion is by far the most common faith of the country.
Kuwait was placed under the protection of Britain around the year 1900 and was aligned with the allies in both World Wars. When Britain withdrew its claim to Kuwait in 1961 Iraq immediately attempted to absorb it, but was unsuccessful. Border incidents between Iraq and Kuwait occasionally flare up even today. In 1987 U.S. President Ronald Reagan placed Kuwaiti oil tankers under American naval protection to protect them from Iranian terrorist attacks. American protection has never been officially withdrawn, but incidents in the Persian Gulf have become uncommon.
¶Lebanon
Y
Beirut
Pound
Ø
1
• Official Name: Republic of Lebanon
• Languages: Arabic (official), French, English
• Population: 3,000,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Republic
• Flag: Horizontal red and white stripes with a green cedar tree in the center symbolizing holiness, eternity, and peace.
• National Holiday: Independence Day, November 22.
• National Anthem: “Kulluna lil watan lil ’ula lil ’alam” (“All of us for the Country, Glory, Flag”)
• President: Amin Gemayel (1982)
• Premier (acting): Selim al-Hoss (1987)
• Exports: fruits, vegetables, textiles
• Imports: metals, machinery, foodstuffs
• Location: On the Eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea
• Area: 4,015 sq. mi. (10,400 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Qurnet es Sauda, 10,131 ft. (3,088 m.)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
•••
Lebanon is situated on the Mediterranean coast directly to the east of Syria and north of Israel. The terrain of Lebanon ranges from fertile coastlines and valleys to the imposing heights of the Lebanon Mountains. Another mountain range, the Anti-Lebanon, forms Lebanon’s eastern border with Syria. The climate of Lebanon ranges from mild to hot and from arid to humid. Lebanon is an important agricultural area and supplies food to several Middle Eastern nations.
For millennia Lebanon has occupied a key location in trade routes between east and west. The area now known as Lebanon was once known as Phoenicia. Phoenician trading vessels ranged throughout the Mediterranean, and trade convoys ranged deep into Persia. Phoenicia was one of the most powerful and stable of ancient Mediterranean cultures, lasting more than a thousand years. Phoenicia successfully fought off several Greek and Persian invasions. Never fully organized as a kingdom, Phoenicia was a loose collection of city-states much like pre-imperial Greece. Without significant raw materials of their own, the ancient Phoenicians (like modern day Lebanese) made their fortune by trading goods and services. Most historians believe that the Greeks incorporated the Phoenician alphabet into their own culture. Phoenicians had developed their lettering system (known as “Cuneiform”) to keep better records of their vital trading system.
After paying enormous taxes as a tribute to the Assyrian empire, Phoenicia lost much of its strength. Eventually the Phoenician culture was overrun by Babylonians, Persians, Alexander the Great and other empires. The last remnants of the Phoenician city-states were destroyed by Alexander in his march to Persia. During Roman rule the area became a part of the province of Syria. By the fall of the Roman Empire Phoenicia had been completely absorbed into the Syrian culture.
The modern history of Lebanon is similar to its ancient history. Moslem invaders converted the area to Islam around the eighth century A.D. and it became a principal focus of the great European Crusades. European influence in the area remained strong until it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in the sixteenth century. The Turks held the area until their empire was dismantled at the end of World War I. The League of Nations gave control of the area to the French, who maintained control until the end of World War II.
Lebanon protested the formation of an Israeli state, and along with Jordan and Iraq formed the Arab league to invade the newly created state in 1948. For the next three decades Lebanon mounted military attacks and supported terrorist activities against Israel. For more on this subject, see the discussion of Israel.
Successive invasions of Moslems, Christians and Turks left Lebanon in a highly volatile religious state. The competing religions steadily escalated conflict until 1975 when a bitter civil war began. Syria eventually intervened in the war to protect legitimate business interests, but guerrilla warfare still continues. The capital city of Beirut has become a constant war zone, and all attempts to pacify the belligerents have failed.
¶Oman
Y
Muscat
Rial
Ø
1
• Official Name: Sultanate of Oman
• Languages: Arabic
• Population: 1,400,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Absolute monarchy
• Flag: A red vertical stripe appears at the left, with white, red, and green horizontal stripes at the right, The national coat of arms appears in white silhouette in the upper left corner. Adopted 1971.
• Imports: machinery and transport equipment, food, mineral fuels
• Location: On Southeast coast of Arabian peninsula
• Area: 105,000 sq. mi. (271,950 sq. km.)
•••
Oman is situated on the extreme southeast corner of the Arabian Peninsula. Like most other Arab states, Oman has a harsh climate with very little arable land. Most of the country is covered by the largest of the Arabian deserts, the “Rub al Khali.” The desert is so hostile that no specific border has ever been defined between Saudi Arabia and Oman. The people of Oman live in much the same was as their ancestors have for thousands of years. The discovery of significant oil reserves holds hope for a future with a higher standard of living.
Before the Moslem invasion of the eighth century, little is known of this region. Europeans first took notice of the area in the sixteenth century. Portugal took control of the area, but they were driven out in the eighteenth century. Persia held Oman briefly at about the time of the American Revolution, and Great Britain finally placed the area under its protection near the start of the nineteenth century. The slave and spice trade helped create an economic boom that lasted throughout most of that century, but eventually the boom went bust. Britain extended its control over the area until the beginning of the twentieth century when the growing global conflicts diverted attention elsewhere. After World War II, Oman became an independent state.
¶Qatar
Y
Doha
Riyal
Ø
1
• Official Name: State of Qatar
• Languages: Arabic
• Population: 400,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Traditional emirate
• Flag: On the left is a vertical white stripe with a jagged right edge. The left of the flag is maroon.
• Emir: Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad al-Thani (1972)
• Natural Resources: oil, gas
• Exports: oil
• Location: Occupies peninsula on West coast of Persian Gulf
• Area: #4,000 sq. mi. (11,437 sq. km.)
•••
Qatar is located on a peninsula that juts out into the Persian Gulf and shares a border with Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The land is as forbidding as any on Earth. The major economic force in Qatar is the drilling and exportation of oil and gas. Manufacturing concerns are now being developed to add diversity to the economy.
As with most of the surrounding area, Qatar was overrun by Moslem invaders in the eighth century, and the prevailing religion of the country is Islam. The history of Qatar is virtually non-existent. The area now known as Qatar was dominated by other Arab states as well as by empires such as the Persian empire and the empire of the Ottoman Turks. Great Britain took control of the area after the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman empire. In 1971 Qatar was granted full autonomy and has since become an important source of oil and gas for industrial concerns around the world.
¶Saudi Arabia
Y
Riyadh
Riyal
Ø
1
• Official Name: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
• Languages: Arabic
• Population: 14,200,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Monarchy with council of ministers
• Flag: The flag is green. It has a white sword below the Arabic inscription, “There is no god but Allah, and Mohammed is the prophet of Allah.” Green is a popular Moslem color, the sword is a traditional emblem of the Wahhabi religious group.
• National Holiday: Unification of the Kingdom, September 23.
• National Anthem: “As-Salaam Al-Malaki As-Saudi” (“Royal Anthem of Saudi Arabia”)
• Ruler and Prime Minister: King Fahd bin ’Abdulaziz (1982)
• Natural Resources: oil
• Exports: petroleum and petroleum products, wheat
• Imports: manufactured goods, transport equipment, construction materials, processed food
• Location: Occupies most of the Arabian Peninsula of the Middle East
• Area: 865,000 sq. mi. (2,250,070 sq. km.)
•••
Saudi Arabia spreads out over most of the Arabian Peninsula, a vast desert area between Asia and Africa. Mountainous regions and volcanic debris make up most of the area not covered by deserts. A truly arid region, Saudi Arabia suffers from a severe lack of usable fresh water. There are no rivers or lakes in the country, and most surface water flows only briefly after a rare rainstorm.
Saudi Arabia is, nevertheless, one of the richest nations on earth. Vast oil reserves and a stable government to exploit them allow the Saudis to export oil to the rest of the world at a huge profit. The oil reserves of Saudi Arabia (along with other Persian Gulf states) are considered to be “strategically important” by NATO leaders. Several times the United States and her allies have committed ships and troops to ensure the flow of this precious lifeblood of industry.
The population of Saudi Arabia is mostly Moslem. A sacred city of Islam is Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, the founder of the Moslem faith. Because of scarce resources and little water, a nomadic way of life is followed by the Bedouins, a goat and sheep-herding society of the desert. In ancient times the people of Saudi Arabia were nomadic herders much like the Bedouins of today. These nomadic Arabs were largely ignored by outsiders, although their numbering system proved vastly superior to all other such systems of ancient times, and we still use it today. Until the founding of Islam and the first Islamic “jihad” (Holy War) Saudi Arabia was outside of the mainstream of history.
Armies of Moslems poured out of Saudi Arabia to spread the word of Islam around 730 A.D. Within a few decades the Moslem empire stretched from India to Spain, including virtually all of north Africa. This empire was weak and prone to squabbling among its leaders. By 1200 A.D. the empire had become a collection of sheikdoms, each ruled by a charismatic ruler. Because of this fragmentation of resources, the area of Saudi Arabia was not able to defend itself from Turkish invaders of the Ottoman Empire. Although the area that is now Saudi Arabia was nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, the inaccessibility of the area and the fierceness of the inhabitants allowed many sheikdoms to remain powerful.
The Ottoman Turks kept some control of Saudi Arabia until after World War I when the Ottoman Empire was overthrown. Between 1900 and 1930 a powerful sheik led an army of Moslems, eventually capturing all of what is now Saudi Arabia. The sheik, Ibn Saud, organized the people into a country and his descendants rule Saudi Arabia to this day.
¶Syria
Y
Damascus
Pound
Ø
1
• Official Name: Syrian Arab Republic
• Languages: Arabic (Sunni)
• Population: 11,300,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Socialist
• Flag: The flag has three horizontal stripes of red, white, and black with two green stars on the white stripe.
• President: Hafez al-Assad (1971)
• Prime Minister: Mahmoud al-Zubi (1987)
• Natural Resources: chrome, manganese, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, phosphate, oil, natural gas
• Exports: petroleum, textiles, tobacco, fruits and vegetables, cotton
• Imports: machinery and metal products, textiles, fuels, foodstuffs
• Location: At the Eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea
• Area: 71,498 sq. mi. (185,180 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Mt. Hermon, 9,232 ft. (2,814 m.)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
•••
The land of Syria is similar to other Middle Eastern countries. Much of Syria is covered by the great Syrian Desert, which also extends into Jordan and Iraq. The extreme eastern portion of the country lies along the Mediterranean Sea, and the northeastern part of Syria stretches across the Tigris-Euphrates Basin. Known in ancient times as the “Fertile Crescent,” this area was the birthplace of many early civilizations.
Along with Iraq, Syria makes up part of what was once known as Mesopotamia. Most of the powerful early civilizations arose to the south or east of Syria, but the lands that now make up Syria are very fertile and were conquered by every empire that took an interest. The flat plains of Syria also allowed for easy movement of armies to and from other battles, as well as making more conventional trade easier. The Mediterranean coastal regions of Syria were at one time known as Phoenicia. The Phoenicians were adept traders and their civilization lasted a thousand years. The Biblical city of Damascus where Saul (later Paul) had his divine revelation is in Syria.
For more information of the ancient history of Mesopotamia, see Israel, Lebanon, and Iraq.
The modern history of Syria begins with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Originally France ruled Syria under a League of Nations Mandate. During World War II Syria was occupied by Allied forces. Syria joined with Jordan and other Arab states to protest against the formation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and later joined in military action against Israel. Israel successfully defended itself from the Arabs and became a nation in 1949.
Syria joined with other Arab states in attacks against Israel several times in the decades following the creation of Israel. Increasing Soviet influence led to a polarization in the Middle East between Syria and Israel. With weapons and military support from the Soviet Union, Syria repeatedly confronted Israel, who had weapons and military support from the United States. In some respects the rivalry between Syria and Israel allowed a buffer zone between the two superpowers. In every major battle, however, Israel emerged victorious.
The worst defeat suffered by Syria, along with her Arab allies, occurred in 1967 in the confrontation now known as the “Six Day War.” For more about these confrontations, see “Israel.” After the Six Day War Israel occupied Syrian territory known as the Golan Heights.
Syria has been implicated in several terrorist attacks over the last few decades. Syrian hostility toward Israel has not lessened and the Arabs in Syria are sworn enemies of the Jews of Israel. Syria has most recently been involved in efforts to stabilize the war-torn country of Lebanon, and moderate members of the Syrian government seem inclined to work toward peaceful solutions to the ancient hostilities.
¶Turkey
Y
Ankara
Lira
Ø
1
• Official Name: Republic of Turkey
• Languages: Turkish
• Population: 52,900,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Republic
• Flag: Red, with a white crescent near the center. A star lies just outside the points.
• National Holiday: October 29, Republic declared.
• National Anthem: “Istiklal Marsi” (“Independence March”)
• Imports: crude oil, machinery, transport equipment, metals, mineral fuels, fertilizer, chemicals
• Location: Occupies Asia Minor, between the Mediterranean and Black Seas
• Area: 300,947 sq. mi. (779,452 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Mt. Ararat, 16,946 ft. (5,165 m.)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
•••
Turkey is situated on the Asian extension generally known as Asia Minor. A small strip of land on the west coast of the Sea of Marmara extends Turkey into Europe itself. Most of the land of Asia Minor is dominated by mountain ranges and high arid plateaus. The most fertile areas of Turkey are located in the bays and inlets of the Aegean Sea along Turkey’s western coastline. Turkey’s highest point is Mount Ararat, the mountain that Noah is reported to have disembarked upon after the biblical flood. Turkey experiences earthquakes and volcanoes more frequently than most parts of the earth.
The climate of Asia Minor is generally arid and harsh. In spite of the lack of arable land, Turkey has essentially an agricultural economy. Farming and raising livestock make up the bulk of Turkish jobs. The area has poor mineral resources, and those that exist are difficult to exploit because of the terrain.
Asia Minor played an important role in the ancient history of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures of ancient times. Evidence of human habitation of the area of Asia Minor goes as far back as ten thousand years. There is evidence that men first learned to work iron in Asia Minor. One of the most powerful of ancient empires, the Hittite empire, began there. The ancient Greeks began to colonize Asia Minor (from their thriving colony in Cyprus) around 1300 B.C. The ancient city of Troy is on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. The civilizations of Asia Minor declined and have been overshadowed by the Mediterranean and Persian empires throughout recorded history. As Persia and Greece expanded their influence, Asia Minor became their battleground.
The Roman Empire controlled Asia Minor and the port city of Constantinople (named for the Roman emperor Constantine), became an eastern capital of the empire. As the Roman Empire declined, it split into two parts, the Western Roman Empire, including most of Southern Europe, and the Byzantine Empire to the East. The Byzantines were a Christian empire that survived well into the middle ages. The Byzantine Empire was a brilliant light in the period otherwise known as the Dark Ages. This empire was a bulwark of faith and turned back the Moslem hordes of Islam time after time. Eventually the Moslem Turks threatened the empire so severely that the Byzantines requested aid from Western Europe. The resulting Crusades blunted the Arab threat, but the European leaders, jealous of the wealth of the Byzantines, turned their forces against the Empire, sacking the city of Constantinople in 1204. By 1261 heirs of the Emperor regained the city of Constantinople and reestablished the Byzantine Empire, although in much reduced form. This weakened empire soon fell to the Ottoman Turks.
After the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans, the Moslem Turks expanded their control until they controlled all of Greece and much of eastern Europe, as well as north Africa, all of the Arabian Peninsula and parts of Persia and Russia as well. This powerful empire lasted for almost five hundred years before being dismantled shortly before and during World War I. Powerful European powers whittled away at the Ottoman Empire until the Turks lost control of Europe and most of northern Africa before World War I. After the war the Empire was divided by the League of Nations into “Mandates” managed by the powerful European states (mostly France and England). Turkey was reduced to its present day borders and a new government was formed in 1920.
During World War II Turkey remained neutral. In 1944, when evidence of German atrocities became well-known, Turkey declared war on Germany. After the war Turkey aligned itself with the West. With the new political alignment of the Cold War, Turkey became strategically vital to Western interests, but a series of savvy political moves allowed Turkey to maintain relations with both East and West.
Turkey and Greece have been on the brink of war many times in the past, and currently the situation in Cyprus is dangerous. High tensions between the Greek majority and the Turkish minority on the island have led to a war of words between Greece and Turkey that threatens to escalate into real fighting. Currently Turkey is considered to be “friendly” to the West, although the political situation there bears watching.
¶United Arab Emirates
Y
Abu Dhabi
Dirham
Ø
1
• Official Name: United Arab Emirates
• Languages: Arabic
• Population: 1,500,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Federation of emirates
• Flag: The flag has a vertical red stripe and horizontal stripes of green, white, and black. Adopted 1971.
• President: Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al-Nahayan (1971)
• Prime Minister: Sheik Rashid Bin Said al-Maktoum (1979)
• Natural Resources: oil
• Exports: petroleum, dates, fish
• Imports: consumer goods, food
• Location: On the South shore of the Persian Gulf
• Area: 32,000 sq. mi. (82,880 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Jabal Yibir, 5,010 ft. (1,527 m.)
• Lowest Point: Salamiyah, a salt flat slightly below sea level
•••
Seven independent Arab states make up the United Arab Emirates. The seven states are Abu Dhabi, Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariquah, Dubayy, Ras al Khaymah, Ujman, and Umm al Qaywayn. Located on the south coast of the Persian Gulf, the United Arab Emirates have an arid climate and vast oil and gas deposits. Most of the people of the United Arab Emirates live as farmers, nomadic herders, or oil workers. Along the coast of the Persian Gulf fishing and pearl diving are also common.
Like the rest of the Arabian Peninsula, little is known of the area in ancient times. The Moslem hordes of the seventh and eighth centuries overran this area and imposed their Islamic belief on the people. European powers became interested in the Persian Gulf region in the sixteenth century, and by the end of the nineteenth century Britain had consolidated control over most of the Arabian Peninsula, including the area now called the United Arab Emirates. Because of their truce with Britain, the seven states of the United Arab Emirates were known as the “Trucial States” of Arabia. In 1971 they declared themselves to be independent and took the name “United Arab Emirates.”
¶Yemen
Y
Aden
Dinar
Ø
1
• Official Name: People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen
• Languages: Arabic
• Population: 2,400,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Republic
• Flag: Red, white, and black horizontal stripes with a red star on a blue triangle at the mast.
• President: Haider Abubaker Al-Attas (1986)
• Natural Resources: fish, petroleum
• Exports: petroleum products, textiles, cotton
• Imports: foodstuffs, manufactured goods
• Location: On the Southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula
• Area: 111,000 sq. mi. (287,490 sq. km.)
•••
Situated along the extreme southern edge of the Arabian Peninsula, Yemen has an arid climate and a severe lack of water and arable land. The People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen is usually called Yemen (Aden) to avoid confusion with the Yemen Arab Republic which borders it to the west. Yemen’s border with Saudi Arabia to the north has never been defined because of the extremely harsh conditions of the Rub al Khali desert. Unlike most other states in the Arabian peninsula, Yemen has little oil or gas deposits. A large oil refinery in “Little Aden” brings in most of Yemen’s oil and gas revenues.
Because of Yemen’s strategic location along trade routes, ancient trading civilizations flourished in the area more than 2,000 years ago. An invasion from north African tribes was repulsed by a larger invasion from Persia in the sixth century A.D. Yemen fell under the Islamic flood that swept the area in the seventh century. Although the Ottoman Empire claimed the region and sent troops and supplies to rule it, the extreme conditions of the area made it difficult to govern. During this period Great Britain held the coastal areas and occupied the major city of Aden. British control finally ended in 1967 when Arab nationalists instituted a terrorist campaign for independence.
Yemen (Aden) appealed for Soviet aid when the Israeli-Egyptian confrontation led to closing of the Suez canal. Shipping through the Red Sea (the major source of income for Yemen’s port city of Aden) slowed to a trickle without the use of the canal. Nationalist Arabs who controlled Yemen (Aden) during the 1970s attempted to invade Yemen(Sana) several times. Subsequent negotiations to combine the two countries have repeatedly failed.
¶Yemen Arab Republic
Y
San’a’
Rial
Ø
1
• Official Name: Yemen Arab Republic
• Languages: Arabic
• Population: 6,700,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Republic; military in power
• Flag: Red, white, and black horizontal stripes, with a green five-pointed star in the center of the white stripe.
• President: Col. Ali Abdullah Saleh (1978)
• Premier: Abdulaziz Abdulghani (1983)
• Natural Resources: traces of copper, sulfur, coal, quartz
• Exports: cotton, coffee, hides and skins, petroleum
• Imports: textiles and other manufactured consumer goods, sugar, grain, flour
• Location: On the Southern Red Sea coast of the Arabian Peninsula
• Area: 75,290 sq. mi. (195,000 sq. km.)
•••
The Yemen Arab Republic is called Yemen (Sana) to avoid confusion with the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen to the East. Boundaries to the north and east are largely undefined because of the imposing terrain and the vast wasteland of the Rub al Khali desert. Yemen has an arid climate with little arable land. The area of Yemen has virtually no natural resources, and many of the people of Yemen live lives that have not changed in thousands of years.
In ancient times Yemen (Sana) and Yemen (Aden) were part of a spice trading kingdom that lasted for a thousand years. The ancient history of Yemen (Sana) is virtually identical to that of Yemen (Aden). In more modern times Yemen (Sana) has kept diplomatic ties with Saudi Arabia and Egypt. Internal conflict between rival forces supported by Saudi Arabia and Egypt led to tension between the two larger countries, but a compromise government was formed in 1970. During the 1970s Saudi Arabia aided Yemen (Sana) in defending herself against Yemen (Aden) invasion attempts.
¶Afghanistan
Y
Kabul
Afghani
Ø
1
• Official Name: Republic of Afghanistan
• Languages: Pushtu and Dari Persian (both official)
• Population: 14,500,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Communist
• Flag: The three horizontal stripes are black, red, and green. The coat of arms appears in the upper left corner on the black and red stripes.
• Exports: fresh and dried fruits, natural gas, carpets
• Imports: petroleum products and food supplies
• Location: Between Soviet Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent
• Area: 251,000 sq. mi. (650,090 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Nowshak, 24,557 ft. (7,485 m.)
•••
Afghanistan is completely landlocked. The area is desert or mountainous with no basins or extended valleys. Rivers are mostly dry and intermittent. The climate is dry and temperatures range from blistering hot to icy cold. Mountain ranges in Afghanistan reach heights greater than 20,000 feet.
The people of Afghanistan are mostly agricultural farmers or herders. Many of these herders lead nomadic lives similar to the Bedouin nomads of Saudi Arabia. Afghanistan has a widely varied population, with the majority being of Caucasian descent. There are also inhabitants of Mongol descent. Virtually the entire population of Afghanistan is Islamic, with a very small number of Christians and Jews.
Afghanistan was conquered by several empires in ancient times, including the Persian and Mongol empires. Alexander the Great did not overlook the region when he established his empire, and the Moslem jihad (“Holy War”) of the 700s A.D. also took control. Genghis Khan conquered the area for the Mongols in the thirteenth century.
The modern history of Afghanistan began with the unification of Afghanistan as a nation in the eighteenth century. Britain and Russia struggled for possession of the area in the nineteenth century, but neither country could exert complete control. In response to British attacks, Afghanistan mounted an invasion of India in 1919. To make peace Britain concluded a treaty that recognized Afghanistan as an independent nation. After World War II Afghanistan succumbed to heavy Soviet influence and propaganda. Eventually the Soviet Union succeeded in establishing a puppet communist government in 1979. Rebellion against the Soviet imposed government led to an invasion of Soviet troops, but after ten years of bloody guerrilla warfare the Soviets withdrew. At the time of this writing Afghanistan is still under Soviet influence, but the rebellion continues.
¶Pakistan
Y
Islamabad
Rupee
Ø
1
• Official Name: Islamic Republic of Pakistan
• Languages: Urdu (national), English (official), Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashtu, and Baluchi
• Population: 107,500,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Parliamentary democracy in a federal setting
• Flag: A white star and crescent, traditional symbols of Islam, on a green background with a white vertical stripe on the left.
• National Anthem: “Qaumi Tarana” (“National Anthem”)
• Acting President: Ghulam Ishaq Khan (1988)
• Prime Minister: vacant
• Natural Resources: natural gas, limited petroleum, iron ore
• Exports: raw and manufactured cotton, rice, carpets, leather, fish
• Highest Point: K2 (Mt. Godwin Austen), 28,250 ft. (8,611 m.)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
•••
Pakistan ranges from the Himalayas in the north to the Arabian sea in the south. The eastern edge of Pakistan is dominated by the Great Indian desert, and the western area is marked by a series of imposing mountain ranges. The northeast corner of Pakistan is claimed both by Pakistan and India, and border disputes and armed clashes have been common. A broad river valley along the Indus river supplies most of the agricultural needs of the country. Manufacturing has been a focal point of the government since 1955, and much progress has been made in this area. But the people of Pakistan still have one of the lowest standards of living in the world.
The ancient history of Pakistan is related in the discussion of India. Pakistan was a part of India until it was separated from India by the British Commonwealth in 1947. Originally Pakistan included West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Throughout the 1950s and 1960s Pakistan had one of the most volatile political situations on earth. Several times violent clashes occurred between warring factions. Economic upheaval caused by the separation from India led to civil unrest. By 1968 political instability and economic hardship resulted in violent riots throughout East and West Pakistan. East Pakistan felt that their government was neglecting them and began a drive for secession.
Secessionist sentiment increased in 1970. A new government was formed that year and East Pakistanis demanded the right to self-government. In 1971 the Pakistani military invaded East Pakistan and began systematic execution of suspected secessionist sympathizers. By the end of 1971 over a million East Pakistanis were dead and a further ten million were political refugees in India. India’s sympathies were with the East Pakistanis and India offered support to guerrilla fighters against the Pakistani troops. Before long war flared between India and Pakistan. In two weeks India defeated the Pakistani forces and East Pakistan declared itself to be the sovereign state of Bangladesh. West Pakistan, now officially Pakistan, continued to have internal difficulties. Widespread reports of election fraud in 1977 brought the country to the brink of civil war.
¶India
Y
New Delhi
Rupee
Ø
1
• Official Name: Republic of India
• Languages: Hindi (official), English (official), Bengali, Gujarati, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Urgu, Kannada, Assamese (all recognized by the Constitution)
• Population: 816,800,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Federal republic
• Flag: The saffron (orange-yellow) stripe is for courage and sacrifice, white is for truth and purity, and green is for faith and chivalry. The wheel is an ancient symbol, the Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Law). Adopted in 1947.
• National Holidays: Republic Day, January 26; Independence Day, August 15.
• National Anthem: “Jana-gana-mana” (“Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All People”)
• President: Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1987)
• Prime Minister: Rajiv Gandhi (1984)
• Natural Resources: iron ore, coal, manganese, mica, bauxite, limestone
• Exports: diamonds, iron goods, textiles and clothing, tea
• Imports: machinery and transport equipment, petroleum, edible oils, fertilizers
• Location: Occupies most of the Indian subcontinent in South Asia
• Area: 1,229,737 sq. mi. (3,185,019 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Nanda Devi, 25,645 ft. (7,817 m.)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
•••
India is one of the world’s most populous nations. The nation of India encompasses the entire sub-continent of India, which abuts the southern coast of Asia. India is a vast area and the geography is as varied as any in the world. The extreme north of India is dominated by the Himalayas, the world’s highest mountain range. The interior of India is dominated by the Ganges river system, one of the world’s greatest waterways. The plains of the Ganges are very similar to the plains of the Mississippi in extent and geography. The land is heavily farmed and contains some of the most densely populated regions on earth. The extreme west end of the Ganges plains are known as the Great Indian Desert which lead into Pakistan to the northwest. The southern part of India is a mountainous region of broken hills and steep valleys known as the Deccan Plateau. This area is sparsely populated but fertile nonetheless. The climate of India ranges from pleasant to hot, with sudden violent storms called monsoons (similar to our hurricanes).
The history of India is among the most ancient in the world. While the Israelites were still wandering around the Mesopotamian deserts, Indian civilizations flourished and extended their power. Most of the history of India is lost, probably because of conquests of Aryan peoples from the northwest. The ruins and culture left behind suggest that these ancient civilizations were as far advanced as the Greek and Roman empires of the Mediterranean as many as 2,000 years earlier. India gave birth to the oldest of the world’s great religions. Hinduism is a faith of non-violence and meditation. Unlike most religions Hinduism is non-specific and as such is usually misunderstood. The origins of Hinduism are lost in antiquity. Hindus do not believe in evangelism and do not spread their faith by force of arms. The beliefs of Hindus are based on ancient writings of unknown authorship known as the “Vedas.” The Vedas are hymns and chants that call upon the deities of Hinduism for specific acts. Some of the Vedas (the “Upanishads”) deal with metaphysical ideas about the universe that are gaining widespread acceptance in areas as diverse as New Age literature and Particle Physics. Buddhism has been listed as an offshoot of Hinduism, but it can be more accurately called a departure from Hinduism.
The modern history of India began with the invasions of Alexander the Great. Although Alexander did not conquer India, his armies advanced into regions of what is now Pakistan and his influence was felt throughout all of India. For centuries after Alexander India existed as a series of city-states each controlled by powerful dynasties. About the time of the Christian Crusades, Moslem invaders from the west descended on India and absorbed the country into their empire. The Indian people retained their Hindu beliefs (unlike most conquered by the Moslems) and eventually the Moslem empire collapsed.
A Mongol empire (called the “Mogul Empire”) was established in northern India by the sixteenth century. This empire firmly established the Moslem religion in the north, but was not able to successfully invade the south. In the late fifteenth century European explorers opened up southern India to trade, and finally to conquest by the British. Britain retained control of India until after World War II. Before and after World War II, Mohandis Gandhi led a non-violent independence campaign for the country that eventually succeeded although Gandhi was assassinated in 1948. In 1947 Britain decided to split India into two independent states, the predominantly Hindu India and the predominantly Moslem Pakistan. Boundary disputes between the two countries continue to this day.
¶Nepal
Y
Katmandu
Rupee
Ø
1
• Official Name: Kingdom of Nepal
• Languages: Nepali (official), Newari, Bhutia
• Population: 18,300,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Constitutional monarchy
• Flag: The flag has two crimson triangles trimmed in blue, one above the other. The top triangle features a moon, and the lower one a sun, symbols of the long life of Nepal, It is the only non-rectangular flag in the world.
• National Holiday: National Day, February 18.
• National Anthem: “Rashtriya Dhun” (“National Anthem”)
• Ruler: Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva (1972)
• Prime Minister: Marich Man Singh Shrestha (1986)
• Imports: textiles, manufactured goods, construction materials, fuel
• Location: Astride the Himalaya Mountains
• Area: 54,463 sq. mi. (141,059 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Mt. Everest, 29,028 ft. (8,848 m.)
•••
Nepal is a mountainous country that is located in the heart of the Himalayas. Although the country is dominated by this imposing mountain range, several fertile valleys (including Katmandu) are covered with vegetation, including deep forests and vast tilled fields. The economy of Nepal is agricultural based. Although mineral deposits have been found, they are not mined significantly. The people of Nepal are mostly of Tibetan or Indian in origin. The primary religion of Nepal is Hindu, but a large minority are Buddhist.
The ancient history of Nepal is shrouded in mystery. Legends of lost cities and wandering mystics abound. The country is similar to Switzerland in that it is difficult to conquer because of the tactical problems involved in getting armies to and from the area. Nevertheless Tibetan and then Indian empires exercised control over Nepal. The Moslem jihad of the seventh century was turned aside by the imposing peaks of the Himalayas, thus sparing the people of Nepal from conversion to Islam by force. A small kingdom, Gurkha, took control of Nepal in the eighteenth century. Nepal succeeded in establishing self-rule in the 1840s, and a subsequent invasion of Tibet was successful. Since the mid-twentieth century Nepal has been beset with internal political turmoil. Currently the country has a reigning king, but the people of Nepal are agitating for a democratic form of government.
¶Bhutan
Y
Thimphu
Ngultrum
Ø
1
• Official Name: Kingdom of Bhutan
• Languages: Dzongkha
• Population: 1,500,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Monarchy
• Flag: The flag is divided diagonally into yellow and orange halves. A white dragon in the center has a jewel in each claw.
• Ruler: King Jigme Singye Wangchuk (1972)
• Natural Resources: timber, hydroelectric power
• Exports: fruits and vegetables, timber, coal, cement
• Imports: fuels, machinery, vehicles
• Location: In Eastern Himalayan Mountains
• Area: 18,000 sq. mi. (46,620 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Kula Kangri, 24,784 ft. (7,554 m.)
• Lowest Point: 150 ft. (46 m.) above sea level in the south
•••
Bhutan is a mountainous region of the Himalayas. It is similar to Nepal in terrain and lifestyle. The people of Bhutan are mostly Buddhists, but a large minority are Hindu. A generally mild climate in the lower valleys gives way to extremes of wind and cold in the higher altitudes.
Like Nepal, little is known of the ancient history of Bhutan. Tibetan and Indian rulers contested the area for centuries. In more modern times, Bhutan first contended with and was then a protectorate of Great Britain. Bhutan gained full control of its affairs in 1947. Weakly allied with India, Bhutan has attempted to modernize its economy in recent years.
¶Bangladesh
Y
Dhaka
Taka
Ø
1
• Official Name: People’s Republic of Bangladesh
• Languages: Bengali (official), English
• Population: 109,500,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Islamic republic
• Flag: The red circle stands for the sun and the green background for scenic beauty. Adopted 1972.
• National Holidays: Shaheed Day (Martyrs Day), February 21; Birthday of the Father of the Nation, March 17; Independence Day, March 26; Victory Day, December 16.
• National Anthem: “Amar Sonar Bangla” (“My Golden Bengal”)
• President: H. M. Ershad (1983)
• Vice President: A. K. M. Nurul Islam (1986)
• Natural Resources: natural gas
• Exports: jute goods, jute, tea, leather
• Imports: foods, grains, fuels, raw cotton, manufactured goods
• Location: In South Asia, on north bend of Bay of Bengal
• Area: 55,598 sq. mi. (143,998 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Mt. Keokradong, 4,034 ft. (1,230 m.)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
•••
Bangladesh is nestled inside of India’s northeastern corner. Bordered on three sides by India and to the south by the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh has a generally mild to hot climate and occupies a fertile river valley. Vast river deltas and marshy areas are cultivated by the people of Bangladesh for rice and other grain crops. Tropical monsoons are common to Bangladesh and floods have been known to kill hundreds of thousands of people. Although the fertile countryside produces vast amounts of food, the massive population of the country devours more than it produces. Bangladesh has one of the highest population densities in the world.
Before 1947 Bangladesh was a part of India. In 1947 India was separated into two countries, India and Pakistan. Pakistan included West Pakistan (now Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). For the history of Bangladesh between 1947 and 1972 see the discussion of Pakistan.
Since 1972 Bangladesh has been at the mercy of an ever-expanding population. The strain of the growing population has led to a volatile political situation. Several bloody coups have added to the atmosphere of desperation. Famine and disease have devastated Bangladesh in its recent history, and many experts warn that the country is one monsoon away from a catastrophe of historic proportions.
¶Maldives
Y
Malé
Rupee
323
2
• Official Name: Republic of Maldives
• Languages: Divehi
• Population: 200,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: One-party state
• Flag: The flag has a white crescent on a dark green rectangle with a red border. The colors and the crescent on the flag stand for Islam. Adopted 1965.
• President: Maumoon Abdul Gayoom (1978)
• Natural Resources: fish, coconuts
• Exports: fish, clothing, ambergris
• Imports: rice, foodstuffs
• Location: In the Indian Ocean Southwest of India
• Area: 115 sq. mi. (298 sq. km.)
•••
The Maldives are a series of island chains in the Indian ocean. Most of the islands are coral reefs that have extended above sea level. A tropical climate and abundant rainfall create a lush tropical environment.
The history of the Maldives is unknown before the arrival of Portuguese explorers in the sixteenth century. Britain took control of the Maldives in the nineteenth century and the islands gained their independence in 1968.
¶Sri Lanka
Y
Colombo **
Rupee
Ø
1
• Official Name: Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
• Languages: Sinhaala, Tamil, English
• Population: 16,600,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Republic
• Flag: The gold lion on a crimson field is a symbol of a recolonial Sri Lankan state. The ornaments in the corners of the crimson field are gold bo leaves, Buddhist symbols. Vertical green (Moslems) and orange (Tamils) stripes at the left stand for minorities.
• Imports: petroleum, machinery, transport equipment, sugar
• Location: In Indian Ocean off SouthEast coast of India
• Area: 25,332 sq. mi. (65,610 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Pidurutalagala, 8,281 ft. (2,524 m.)
•••
Sri Lanka is a large island located off the southeast coast of India. The terrain ranges from flat low-lying plains in the north to mountainous regions in the south. Most of the region has a tropical climate and tropical forests. At one time a land-bridge connected Sri Lanka with the mainland of India, and most of the large animals (including elephants) of India can be found on Sri Lanka as well.
The island of Sri Lanka was originally known as Ceylon. By the time Europeans arrived in Ceylon, the island had already been conquered by Moslem Indians from north India (what is now Pakistan). Portugal took control of the island from the Arabs in the sixteenth century, and lost control of Ceylon to the Dutch. Finally the British drove out the Dutch overseers in the first part of the nineteenth century.
¶Burma
Y
Rangoon
Kyat
Ø
1
• Official Name: Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma
• Languages: Burmese
• Population: 41,100,000 (est. mid-1988)
• Government: Socialist republic
• Flag: The flag has a blue rectangle at the top left corner on a red field. Fourteen small white stars surround a cogwheel and a rice plant on the blue rectangle. The stars stand for the 14 states of the union. The cogwheel and rice represent the importance of agriculture and industry. Red is for courage and unity, white for purity and truth, and blue for the night sky.
• National Holiday: Independence Day, January 4.
• National Anthem: “A-Myo-tha The-chin” (“National Anthem”)
• Imports: machinery, transportation and construction equipment, manufactured goods
• Location: Between South and Southeast Asia, on the Bay of Bengal
• Area: 261,789 sq. mi. (678,036 sq. km.)
• Highest Point: Hkakabo Razi, 19,296 ft. (5,881 m.)
•••
Burma is located east of India on the Bay of Bengal. The country has a varied landscape, ranging from wide river valleys to imposing mountain ranges. The climate ranges from sub-tropical in the north to tropical in the south. A productive country, Burma exports rice to many neighboring countries (like Bangladesh) that have difficulty feeding themselves. Burmese lumber is a valuable natural resource, and mining is an important part of the Burmese economy as well.
Burma was originally colonized by Mongol peoples moving out of Tibet and China. The fertile valleys and plains allowed the growth of cities and soon rival city-states fought for power in the area. No kingdom ever emerged from the original states. For centuries the area was virtually ignored by the powerful empires of the ancient world. Finally the area was dominated by European traders after the fifteenth century A.D. In the nineteenth century English settlers began arriving in Burma in large numbers. In 1937 Britain declared Burma to be a separate crown colony.
During World War II the Japanese invaded Burma. Japanese control of the area was firm until the end of World War II, when Britain regained control. Burma declared independence from Britain in 1948. Since that time Burma has fought Chinese supported guerrilla movements aimed at installing a communist government.
¶West Bank
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• Special case
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The West Bank is the name given to the area directly west of the Jordan River, from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea. Originally part of Palestine this area is now occupied by Israel. Since 1948, when Israeli settlers began to resettle the region, the West Bank has been a focal point of international tension. Israel is financially, militarily and politically allied with the Western nations, particularly the United States. The Arab states of the Middle East, particularly Syria and Jordan, are similarly supported by the Soviet Union. Many political observers fear that a new World War could be sparked by Arab or Israeli aggression in the area. The key factor in the West Bank’s importance is the presence of Jerusalem, a sacred city for three of the world’s greatest religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
After World War II the West Bank was included in a reformed nation of Palestine. The U.N. set up “Mandates” or countries that were to be managed by U.N. members. Palestine was made into a British Mandate. Jewish immigration into Palestine after the war forced the U.N. to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab areas in 1947. This partitioning was met with violent protest by Arabs. In 1967 the Arab nations of the area united in an attempt to destroy Israel.
In six days Israel inflicted massive destruction on the combined forces of the Arabs. At the end of the war Israel held control of the West Bank, and has held the West Bank (and other territories) ever since. The nation of Palestine ceased to exist. Israel expelled Arabs from the occupied territories creating a stream of disenfranchised Arab refugees who poured into Lebanon, Syria and Jordan, straining the economic systems of those countries. The West Bank has come to symbolize the Arab-Israeli problem, and military actions aimed at reclaiming the area for Palestine have been attempted several times. For more discussion of Arab-Israeli hostilities see the discussion under Israel.
¶Middle East
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Middle East and India
The 25 countries and 1 occupied territory which are included in GeoTutor: Middle East & India are:
-- countries --
• Afghanistan
• Bahrain
• Bangladesh
• Bhutan
• Burma
• Cyprus
• India
• Iran
• Iraq
• Israel
• Jordan
• Kuwait
• Lebanon
• Maldives
• Nepal
• Oman
• Pakistan
• Qatar
• Saudi Arabia
• Sri Lanka
• Syria
• Turkey
• United Arab Emirates
• Yemen, People’s Democratic Republic of
• Yemen, Arab Republic
-- occupied territory --
• The West Bank
•••
The term “Middle East” refers to an indeterminate area of Asia and/or Africa, usually including the western Mediterranean cultures of Arab and Semitic peoples. The only country which is commonly considered part of the Middle East that we have not included is Egypt. For the purposes of this tutorial the Middle East is considered to include Iran and the Arabian Peninsula, in addition to the Mediterranean cultures. Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Nepal, the Maldives, Afghanistan and Bhutan are not part of the Middle East.
The Middle East can be seen as the heart and soul of our world. The heart because it pumps the fluid that runs modern industry, oil. The soul because three of the great world religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) were founded there. Some historians and archaeologists maintain that civilization began in Asia Minor (although others point to evidence of ancient civilizations in India and China). Middle Eastern cultures that have profoundly affected modern Western civilization include the ancient Sumerian, Egyptian, Akkadian, Babylonian, Hebrew, Phoenician, Assyrian and Persian empires.
The Middle East has been conquered by outside forces many times as well. The Greek Empire, the empire of Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire and the Mongol empires all conquered most of the lands of the Middle East. After the fall of the Roman Empire, a Christian empire based in Constantinople took over most of the Middle East. Europeans first became interested in the Middle East during the Crusades, when the Pope called upon the European kings to reclaim the holy land from the Moslem invaders. The Crusades lasted, on and off, for several hundred years, but the Moslems were never defeated for long.
The last great empire of the Middle East was the Ottoman Empire which lasted until the end of World War I. After World War I most of the Middle Eastern Countries were controlled by European states until after World War II when many of these countries declared their independence. The reformation of the state of Israel in Palestine in 1947 is the source of much of the world’s tension today.
India is more of a mystery than the Middle East. The area now covered by Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Burma and the Maldives was all under Indian control at one time or another. Two great religions were born in India, the Hindu religion and Buddhism. The area of India was invaded by Mongols, partly by Alexander the Great, and by Moslems from the Middle East. The entire area was held under British control until shortly after World War II. Since then Hindu and Moslem factions have fought in India and Pakistan.
